Effect of Temperatures on Plant Growth

Effect of Temperatures on Plant Growth Chapter 5 IMPLEMENTATION The plant growth module computes the crop growth and development based on daily values of maximum and minimum temperatures, radiation and daily value of soil stress factors. The values are added together to give an estimate of the amount of seasonal growth your plants have achieved. Plant growth prediction model depends on the plant parameters like, Temperature Relative humidity Rainfall Solar radiation. 5.1 Effect of Temperature: Temperature factors that figure into plant growth potentials include the following: Maximum daily temperature Minimum daily temperature Difference between day and night temperature Average daytime temperature Average nighttime temperature Along with these there are other considerations such as: 5.1.1 Microclimates The microclimate of a garden plays a primary role in actual garden temperature. In mountain communities, changes in elevation, air drainage, exposure and thermal heat mass (surrounding rocks) will make gardens significantly warmer or cooler than the temperatures recorded for the are. In mountain communities, it is important to know where the local weather station is located so gardeners can factor in the difference in their specific locations to forecast temperatures more accurately. 5.1.2 Thermal heat mass (surrounding rocks) In many Colorado communities, the surrounding rock formations can form heat sinks creating wonderful gardening spots for local gardeners. Nestled in among the mountains some gardeners have growing seasons several weeks longer than neighbors only a half a mile away. In cooler locations, rock mulch may give some frost protection and increase temperatures for enhanced crop growth. In warmer locations rock mulch can significantly increase summer temperatures and water requirements of landscape plants. 5.1.3 Influence of heat on Crop Growth Temperature affects the growth and productivity of plants, depending on whether the plant is a warm season or cool season crop. Photosynthesis: within limits, rates of photosynthesis and respiration both rise with increasing temperatures. As temperatures reach the upper growing limits for the crop, the rate of food used by respiration may exceed the rate at which food is manufactured by photosynthesis. For tomatoes, growth peaks at 96F. Temperature influence on growth:seeds of cool season crops germinate at 40 to 80.Warm season crop seeds germinate at 50F to 90F.In the spring, cool soil temperatures may prohibit seed germination. Examples of temperature influence on flowering Tomatoes Pollen does not develop if night temperatures are below 55F Blossoms drop if daytime temperatures rise above 95F before 10 am Tomatoes grown in cool climates will have softer fruit with bland flavors. Spinach (a cool season, short day crop) flowers in warm weather with long days. Christmas cacti and poinsettias flower in response to cool temperatures and short days. Examples of temperature influence on crop quality High temperatures increase respiration rates, reducing sugar content of produce. Fruits and vegetables grown in heat will be less sweet. In heat, crop yields reduce while water demand goes up. In hot weather, flowers colors fade and flowers have a shorter life. The Table 5.1 llustrates temperature differences in warm season and cool season Crops Table 6.1 Temperature comparison of cool season and warm season crops Temperature for Cool season: Broccoli, cabbage Warm season: Tomatoes, peppers Germination 40f to 90f,80f optimum 50f to 100f,80f optimum Growth Daytime 65F to 80F preferred 40F minimum Nighttime >32F,tender transplants >mid-20F,established plants Daytime 86F optimum 60F minimum A week below 55F will stunt plant, reducing yields Nighttime >32F Flowering Temperature extremes lead to boiling and buttoning. Nighttime95F by 10 am, blossoms abort Soil Cool Use organic mulch to cool soil Since seeds germinate best in warm soils, use transplants for spring planting, and direct seeding for mid-summer planting(fall harvest) Warm Use black plastic mulch to warm soil, increasing yields and earliness of crop. 5.1.4 Influence of cold temperatures The temperature variation over karnataka for the years 2008,2009,2010.2011 is shown in the figure 6.2. this also shows a clear annual cycle in the temp rise in feb-may and then falls during monsoon and winter. fig 6.2 TEMPERATURE VARIATION OVER KARNATAKA FROM YEAR 2008-2011 5.2 Effect of Relative humidity Relative humidityis the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in an air-water mixture to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a prescribed temperature. The relative humidity of air depends not only on temperature but also on the pressure of the system of interest. 5.2.1 Measurement The humidity of an air-water vapour mixture is determined through the use of psychometric charts if both thedry bulb temperature(T) and thewet bulb temperature(Tw) of the mixture are known. These quantities are readily estimated by using a slingpsychometer. There are several empirical correlations that can be used to estimate the saturated vapour pressure of water vapour as a function of temperature. TheAntoine equationis among the least complex of these formulas, having only three parameters (A, B, and C). Other correlations, such as those presented byGoff-GratchandMagnus Tetens approximation, are more complicated but yield better accuracy. The correlation presented byBuckis commonly encountered in the literature and provides a reasonable balance between complexity and accuracy. whereis the dry bulb temperature expressed in degrees Celsius ( °C),is the absolute pressure expressed in hectopascals (hPa), andis the saturated vapour pressure expressed in hectopascals (hPa). Buck has reported that the maximum relative error is less than 0.20% between -20 °C and +50 °C when this particular form of the generalized formula is used to estimate the saturated vapour pressure of water. 5.2.2 Pressure Dependence The relative humidity of an air-water system is dependent not only on the temperature but also on the absolute pressure of the system of interest. This dependence is demonstrated by considering the air-water system shown below. The system is closed (i.e., no matter enters or leaves the system). The relative humidity over Karnatakafor the years 2008,2009,2010.2011 is shown in the figure 6.4 Fig 6.4 RELATIVE HU MIDITY OVER KARNATAKA 2008-2011 5.3 Effect of Rainfall Fig 6.5 RAIN ANOMALY (top panel) Vs COFFEE AND Rice production over Karnataka 5.4 Effect of Solar Radiation Sunlight is a portionof the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, particularly infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through the Earths atmosphere, and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon. When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat. When it is blocked by the clouds or reflects off other objects, it is experienced as diffused light. The World Meteorological Organization uses the term sunshine duration to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter. Sunlight may be recorded using a sunshine recorder, pyranometer or pyrheliometer. Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach the Earth. On average, it takes energy between 10,000 and 170,000 years to leave the suns interior and then be emitted from the surface as light. Direct sunlight has a luminous efficacy of about 93 lumens per watt of radiant flux. Bright sunlight provides illuminance of approximately 100,000 luxors lumens per square meter at the Earths surface. The total amount of energy received at ground level from the sun at the zenith is 1004 watts per square meter, which is composed of 527 watts of infrared radiation, 445 watts of visible light, and 32 watts of ultraviolet radiation. At the top of the atmosphere sunlight is about 30% more intense, with more than three times the fraction of ultraviolet (UV), with most of the extra UV consisting of biologically-damaging shortwave ultraviolet. Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis, the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy, normally from the sun, into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms act The solar radiation over karnataka for the years 2008,2009,2010.2011 is shown in the figure 6.7, which shows maximum radiation in summer and it decreases in winter. 2008 2009 2010 2011 Fig 6.6 SOLAR RADIATION OVER KODAGU FROM 2008-2011 MODULES OF THE PLANT GROWTH MODEL The plant growth module computes crop growth and development based on daily values of maximum and minimum temperatures radiation and the daily value of two soil water stress factors, SWFAC1 and SWFAC2. This module also simulates leaf area index (LAI), which is used in the soil water module to compute evapotranspiration. 7.1 Initialization Input variables, as listed in table 1, are read from file PLANT.INP. File PLANT.OUT is opened and a header is written to this output file. Table 7.1 input data read for plant module Input data read for plant module Variable name definition Units EMP1 Empirical coefficient for LAI computation ,maximum leaf area expansion per leaf m 2/leaf EMP2 Empirical coefficient for LAI computation Fc Fraction of total crop growth portioned to canopy Intot Duration of reproductive stage Degree-days Lai Leaf area index M2/m2 Lfmax Maximum number of leaves N Leaf number Nb Empirical coefficient for LAI computation P1 Dry matter of leaves removed per plant per unit development after maximum number of leaves is reached G PD Plant density Plants/m2 Rm Maximum rate of leaf appearance Leaf/day Sla Specific leaf area M2/g Tb Base temperature above which reproductive growth occurs  °C W Total plant dry matter g/m2 Wc Canopy dry matter weight g/m2 Wr Root dry matter weight g/m2 7.2 Rate calculations The plant module calls three subroutines: PTS to calculate the effect of temperature on daily plant growth rate and rate of leaf number increase; PGS to calculate daily plant weight increase (g/plant) and LAIS to calculate in leaf area index. In subroutine PTS the growth rate reduction factor (PT) is calculated every day using the following equation: PT=1-0.0025((0.25TMIN + 0.75 TMAX)-26)2 Where TMIN and TMAX are the minimum and maximum daily temperatures. Subroutines PGS calculate PG, the potential daily total dry matter increase (g/plant) :where SRAD is the daily solar radiation and PD is the plant density. SRAD: Y1 is obtained by Y1 =1.5 -0.768. ((ROWASPC .0.01)2 .PD)0.1 Where ROWSPC is the row spacing in cm. The potential plant growth rate is limited by soil water stress through SWFAC and temperature through PT. The plant cycle is divided in vegetative and reproductive phrases. The vegetative phase continues until the plant reaches a genetically determined maximum leaf number. During the vegetative phase, leaf number increase is calculated based on maximum rate and a temperature based limiting factor. During reproductive phase, the difference between daily mean temperature and a base temperature is used to calculate the rate of plant development. Total rate of development towards maturity is accumulated as int. Subroutine LAIS is called for phases to compute the change in leaf area index. During vegetative period, LAI increases as a function of the rate of leaf number increase. The potential rate is limited by soil water stress, through SWFAC and temperature through PT. Its value is given by: dLAI=SWFAC. PT.PD.EMP1. Dn.a/1+a where PD is the plant density , EMP1 is the maximum leaf area expansion per leaf, and a is given by : a= eEMP2.(N-nb) Where EMP2 and nb are coefficients in the expolinear equation and N is the development age of the plant. After plant has reached the maximum number of leaves, LAI starts to decrease as a function of the daily thermal integral, di. The rate of decrease is given by dLAI= -PD.di.p1.SLA Where P1 is the dry matter of leaves removed per plant per unit development after maximum number of leaves is reached and SLA is the specific leaf area. 7.3 Integration Changes to leaf area index, plant weights and leaf number are integrated into the appropriate state variables at the beginning of the integration section. 7.4 Output Daily output is written in PLANT.OUT file. 7.5 Close The PLANT.OUT output file is closed. Fig 7.1 Planning the Concept Of Dynamical Agriculture Model

Macroeconomics :: Economy Economics Essays

Macroeconomics â€Å"How might a country go about lowering its NAIRU? What are the welfare implications of so doing?† In tackling this question, we will adopt a theoretical approach in the sense that we will focus on an economy and explain the determinants of NAIRU as well as the policy options. But it seems logical to first introduce the concept of NAIRU, or the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment, which will be interchangeably used with the â€Å"equilibrium rate of unemployment†. According to Carlin and Soskice , the central concept of equilibrium unemployment can be defined as â€Å"the rate of unemployment at which the expected real wage that results from wage-setting decisions is equal to the real wage implied by price-setting decisions†. Stiglitz argues that the NAIRU is used as a theory to understand the causes of inflation (predicting the changes in inflation rates) and is important because it enlightens the relation between unemployment and increasing inflation. The NAIRU corresponds to the rate of unemployment which is consistent with an unchanging inflation rate, and further reflects how the economy behaves out of equilibrium. Unless employment is at equilibrium level, inflation will increase or decrease until it reaches the NAIRU, the level of output and employment at which inflation is constant. In fact, Stiglitz explains that when unemployment is below the NAIRU, real wages demands are greater than the amount firms are willing to pay. At equilibrium, the behavior of wage-setters is compatible with that of the price-setters. His point is indeed that â€Å"if NAIRU exists, it must be changing over time† . What is more, Stiglitz identifies four phenomena that can change the NAIRU, namely changing demogra phics of the labor force, the productivity growth becoming more in line with worker expectations, an increase in the competitiveness of the labor and product market (through greater openness and trade), and finally hysterisis, which says that a higher NAIRU will generate an even higher one. He also discards the theory according to which productivity rate affects the equilibrium rate: productivity only has a temporary influence through the â€Å"wage-aspiration† effect. According to Altig and Gomme , the NAIRU is thought to represent a â€Å"speed limit† for economic activity: â€Å"it measures a nation’s sustainable production capability†. If the economy grows faster than its resources can support over the long-run, that is when the unemployment rate falls below the NAIRU, then price pressure builds and inflation rate accelerates.

Boys will be boys Essay

Boys need care and support also when they are growing up, but it seems their behavior is required more rigidly. When boys come to the age of 10 or 11, they are required to behavior like a man. A boy who is scared in the dark or left alone at such a young age will be laughed, he will be said sissy. The traditional way asked boys mislead them to be pretend to be man-like. They have to be independent exactly when they need love and support from parents, they get no comfort or care when they get hurt. All of which at last lead to a pathological for the boy who can’t handle it well. Boys suffer from the way people rewire them, they are emotionally expressive, but a long time to repress their real feelings lead to a higher rate of crime or suicide, smoking and alcoholics in boys than girls. If boys go against their heart for a long time, they can’t act who they are for a long time, they get no help or guide, psychological problems will come into being instead. For example, a boy who lost his father in an early age, in his heart he desires the love from his father or from a man. But he should behave like a man to avoid being laughed by others while he is so weak, he has no one to talk this desire, so that as the desire become stronger and stronger, most cases, he becomes a gay. At last, boys should be taken care of in a different way from girls. The rigid idea that boys should behave like a â€Å"big boy† every moment should be considered carefully. Maybe when the boys really get the opportunity to be themselves, there will be less crime and suicide. No matter how he behaves, just follow the voice from the heart. Let the boys be who they are, more acceptance and love is need for who they are.

Social Media Is A Big Invasion Of Privacy - 915 Words

Social media has taken over the modern day world. It has helped us to communicate, share information, keep in touch, etc. We often forget about the problems it causes. Social media causes ethical dilemmas such as violations of misrepresentation, privacy, cyber bullying, and spying. Social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat have made the world what it is today. Although, social media helps us tremendously, we have to be very careful that we do not abuse it. In the article â€Å"Ethical Dilemmas Faced in Content Marketing,† Dr. Jim Barry writes that social media is a big invasion of privacy. He states that social media includes â€Å"non-permissive approaches taken by a marketer to disclose profile information as well as the sharing of sensitive personal information through channels that could exploit or otherwise harm the individual’s standing. Advertisers break your online privacy to develop new ways to promote products. They find a way to match your interests to the sites that show up on your screen. They keep a close eye on your social media behavior. Sites like Twitter work with cookies which are small files stored in a computer that enable tracking the user across different sites. They can track you and gather information about what you are doing a social media web page. Social networks are changing the relationships between people. â€Å"Basement-inhabiting creeps† are sitting in front of their computer screens silently watching your everyShow MoreRelatedData Protection and Customer Privacy743 Words   |  3 PagesThe media, trade bodies and academia has created a large buzz around the Data Protection and customers’ privacy in the recent years. The consequences of the issue raised are different legislation policies, self-regulation, and general confusion. In order to be discussed, this controversial topic should be looked at from two different perspectives: customers’ one and direct marketers’ one. 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